Does Homework Increase Student Achievement? Essay

Introduction Homework is a very complex topic and a source of great discussion. Support for homework has ebbed and flowed over the last century. Some have argued that the burden of homework causes significant family stress–including parent-child conflict, reduced family leisure time, and overly tired children. (Kralovec & Buell, 2000). Others have argued that homework is a necessary part of the American educational experience. After the Russians launched Sputnik in 1957, Americans were worried about keeping up educationally with other nations and began to demand more homework for the children (Gill & Schlossman, 2000). Due to these changing views on homework, research is more important than ever to determine (if possible) the effects of homework on student achievement. Definitions Homework can be defined as any task assigned by schoolteachers intended for students to carry out during non-school hours (Cooper, 1989). The scope of the word homework can include many different types of things. Variations in  homework can be classified according to its (a) amount, (b) skill area, (c) purpose, (d) degree of choice for the student, (e) completion deadline, (f) degree of individualization, and (g) social context. Variations in the amount of homework can appear as differences in both the frequency and length of individual assignments. Assignments can range over all the skill areas taught in school. (p. 1, Cooper, Robinson, and Patall, 2006). Primary Purposes/Benefits of Homework Assignments Homework can be assigned to fulfill many purposes. Those purposes are either instructional or non-instructional. (Epstein, 1988; Epstein and Van Voohis, 2001). Practicing or reviewing material from class is the most common instructional purpose. Other purposes include the introduction of new material and the application of learned skills to new situations. Examples of non-instructional purposes are to fulfill district homework policies, open and grown parent-teacher lines of communication, as well as improved parent-child communication regarding school. (Cooper et al., 2006) Students, teachers and parents experience these benefits of the homework assignments. Additional Benefits of Homework While the primary reason for assigning homework is to aid and reinforce instruction, there is growing evidence that the practice of homework can have additional benefits including managing distraction, self-efficacy, and perceived responsibility for learning (Bembenutty, 2009). While these self-regulation tasks, such as time management, setting goals, effort and persistence in completing difficult tasks, and self-monitoring one’s performance, are important to academic success, they are also vitally important life skills, especially for successful professional writers, athletes, artists, and scientists. (Ramdass and Zimmerman, 2011). Other benefits include long-term academic benefits such as better study skills, as well as nonacademic benefits such as greater self -direction and more independent problem-solving. In addition, parents tend to have a great appreciation of and involvement in schooling (Protheroe, 2009). Relationship between Homework and Achievement There are varied findings in the research for the relationship between  homework and achievement. Some research finds a positive relationship between homework and achievement. Zhu and Leung (2012) studied this relationship by introducing quality of homework as a factor. They focused on three aspects: frequency and amount of homework; types of homework; and usage modes of homework. Overall, Zhu & Leung found that the three aspects of homework studied did have a positive influence on assessment results. Tanis and Sullivan-Bustein (1998) studied homework completion and its effect on weekly quiz performance. This research did show improved test performance as homework completion increased. This study was somewhat flawed, however, because the participants were not chosen randomly. The students were chosen due to their history of achievement (or lack thereof) and homework issues. Nonetheless, this research did positively affect the students studied. Omlin-Ruback (1998) conducted a study focusing on increasing homework completion of middle school students through the use of interventions. This study found that the students who were participating in the homework interventions on a daily basis had better grades than those who did not. Thus, students who were completing more homework had improved achievement. While these three studies did find a positive relationship, other research finds no relationship. Trautwein, Schnyder, Niggli, Neumann, and Ludkte (2009) reviewed a great deal of prior research on the relationship between homework and achievement and decided that a more complex research design was required to study this relationship. The results of their study depended on the variables under focus. The homework-achievement association was positive, negative or not statistically significant depending on which variables were being studied. Opponents point out that homework can also have negative effects on achievement and school in general. It can lead to boredom with schoolwork, since all activities remain interesting only for finite periods of time. Homework can deny children access to leisure activities that also teach important life skills. Parents can get too involved in homework. They can  pressure children and can confuse them by using instructional techniques that are different from those used by the teacher (p.1, Cooper, 2008). Factors other than Homework that Affect Achievement The relationship between homework and student achievement is complex. One significant factor other than homework affecting achievement includes home life. Some students do not have the tools or support at home to complete homework. (Protheroe, 2009). In addition, test anxiety and stress levels can negatively affect student achievement even if homework completion is complete and thorough. (Talib and Sansgiry, 2011). Thus, studying a single relationship between homework and student achievement cannot explain the effects, or lack thereof, of homework. Conclusions There are varied finding in the research concerning the relationship between homework and student achievement. While there is a great deal of research on the topic of the value of homework in student achievement, it turns out that this relationship is very complex. There are many factors involved, many of which are out of the control of the school or teacher. In addition, there are gaps in the research regarding the different types of homework and the quality of homework. This complex relationship needs to be further defined and refined. Further research needs to be done using new statistical techniques that can successfully handle the number of variables in this relationship. References Bembenutty, H. (2009). Feeling-of-knowing judgment and self-regulation of learning. Education, 129(4), 589-598. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/61800994?accountid=12924 Bempechat, J., Li, J., Neier, S. M., Gillis, C. A., & Holloway, S. D. (2011). The homework experience: Perceptions of low-income youth. Journal of Advanced Academics, 22(2), 250-278. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/864940664?accountid=12924 Cooper, H. (2008). A brief history of homework in the united states. research brief. ().National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. 1906 Association Drive, Reston, VA 20191-1502. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/61858829?accountid=12924 Cooper, H., Robinson, J. C., & Patall, E. A. (2006). Does homework improve academic achievement A synthesis of research, 1987-2003. Review of Educational Research, 76(1), 1-62. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/62008296?accountid=12924 Cooper, H. (1989). Synthesis of research on homework. Educational Leadership, 47(3), 85-91. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/63060036?accountid=12924 Dettmers, S., Trautwein, U., Ludtke, O., Kunter, M., & Baumert, J. (2010). Homework works if homework quality is high: Using multilevel modeling to predict the development of achievement in mathematics. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(2), 467-482. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/742870744?accountid=12924 Epstein, J. L. (1983). Homework practices, achievements, and behaviors of elementary school students. (). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/63342872?accountid=12924 Epstein , J. L. (2001). School, family, and community partnerships: Preparing educators and improving schools Westview Press, 5500 Central Avenue, Boulder, CO 80301 ($35). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/62348785?accountid=12924 Gill, B., & Schlossman, S. (2000). The lost cause of homework reform. American Journal of Education, 109(1), 27-62. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/62249711?accountid=12924 Hong, E., Wan, M., & Peng, Y. (2011). Discrepancies between students’ and teachers’ perceptions of homework. Journal of Advanced Academics, 22(2), 280-308. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/864939429?accountid=12924 Kralovec, E., & Buell, J. (2000). The end of homework: How homework disrupts families, overburdens children, and limits learning Beacon Press, 25 Beacon Street, Boston, MA 02108-2892; Tel: 617-742-2110; Fax: 617-742-2290; Web site: http://www.beacon.org ($18). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/62323216?a ccountid=12924 Protheroe, N. (2009). Good homework policy. Principal, 89(1), 42-45. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/61819932?accountid=12924 Omlin-Ruback, H.A study of mathematics homework. , 98. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1011399791?accountid=12924. (1011399791; ED531060). Ramdass, D., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2011). Developing self-regulation skills: The important role of homework. Journal of Advanced Academics, 22(2), 194-218. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/864939542?accountid=12924 Talib, N., & Sansgiry, S. S. (2011). Factors affecting academic performance of university students in Pakistan. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 3(3), 589-600. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/926273717?accountid=12924 Tanis, B., & Sullivan-Bustein, K. (1998). Teacher-selected strategies for improving homework completion. Remedial and Special Education, 19(5), 263. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/236286267?accountid=12924 Trautwein, U., & Ludtke, O. (2009). Predicting homework motivation and homework effort in six school subjects: The role of person and family characteristics, classroom factors, and school track. Learning and Instruction, 19(3), 243-258. Retrieved http://search.proquest.com/docview/61902599?accountid=12924 Trautwein, U., Schnyder, I., Niggli, A., Neumann, M., & Ludtke, O. (2009). Chameleon effects in homework research: The homework-achievement association depends on the measures used and the level of analysis chosen. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34(1), 77-88. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/61988315?accountid=12924 Zhu, Y., & Leung, F. K. S. (2012). Homework and mathematics achievement in Hong Kong: Evidence from the TIMSS 2003. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 10(4), 907-925. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1037906879?accountid=12924

Marketing Skin Care Product Essay

Marketing Project Have you ever gone to the store to purchase a skin care product to help prevent acne and make your skin beautiful; all you find are products aimed towards older women stating something to do with wrinkles? I don’t know about you, but I’m too young to even think about wrinkles at this point in my life. I just wanted something to make my skin look and feel good but at the same time help prevent break outs. The solution is â€Å"Glow†. The name says it all. It will give you radiant, clear skin. â€Å"Glow† skin cream is not a need, it’s a want. Therefore, we must stand out above the many other products on the shelves. Our target audience is teenagers through early thirty year old, middle class women who are looking for radiant, clear skin at an affordable price. The best way to market to these women is through the internet and magazines. Glow skin cream is different than other skin creams on the market for many reasons: After just one week of use your skin will look and feel healthier, more radiant, it provides light-weight coverage, hydrates and smoothens skin, visibly reduces redness, conceals flaws, it’s infused with minerals and antioxidants, and has SPF 15 protection all in one bottle. Some beauty products have enough chemicals to clean a toilet! â€Å"Glow† skin cream is all natural and helps your skin to look its best. â€Å"Glow† is targeted to attract teenagers to early thirty-year old females. Let’s face it; teens won’t be purchasing this product on their own; parents will love the cost. The product is affordable enough that they will be  repeat buyers. If ordered online a discount will be given to buyers who purchase more than two at a time. According to the woman we surveyed they were happy with the way the product works as well as the reasonable price. â€Å"Glow† is available for all skin types and nationalities. Different woman require different needs depending on their skin type, their geographic location, and nationality. A woman located in Florida tends to need a product that protects against sun damage, where a woman located in Denver would need something to help with dry skin; â€Å"Glow† has different products featured towards these skin types. Packaging is aimed towards a younger crowd as well; hot pink with gold lettering. It’s attractive and girly; young and fun looking, but also has a touch of elegance. It will stand out on the shelf or online. It won’t be an eye sore, but it will grab your attention as you check out the shelf for a product. Teens these days are on social media sites all throughout the day. When they wake up in the morning they log in to Facebook; as if it’s the morning paper. I would advertise on this site; as well as many others. Twitter and YouTube, just to name a couple are great for targeting a certain market. Each site gives you options on whom you’d like these ads to pop up for based on the users demographics entered when they created their accounts. Google also offers an option similar to this. If a person were to enter in their search certain key words then your ad would be on the side of the page results. You choose the keywords that go along with your ad. For example, if someone were to search: face, cream, or skin care; then our ad for â€Å"Glow† would show up on the side of the search results. The Internet is a great resource to take advantage of for advertising. Most people are on the internet at least one time a day; as long as the ad is catchy, it will get someoneâ⠂¬â„¢s attention. Another great place to advertise to the twenty to thirty year old woman would be magazines, such as Cosmopolitan. For a fee you are able to get product ads located throughout the magazine, I would utilize this option and put a coupon on the ad to get the product at a discounted price. Overall, I believe if we market the product correctly; packaging, prices, and attract the correct consumers â€Å"Glow† will be very successful in the  tough skin cream market. All three of these are key focuses in having a successful product. References [Facebook Advertising]. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.facebook.com/advertising/ [Google Advertising]. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.google.com/ads/adwords2/ [Twitter Advertising]. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://business.twitter.com/start-advertising [YouTube Advertising]. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/yt/advertise/

Definition of Terms

Definition of Terms Academic Performance- it is how the students cooperate/ perform in the school. – It measures students learning (grades etc. ) – Determines how the students are doing in their studies and classes. Aggressiveness – effect of too much use of computer that may blur a child ability to distinguish real life from simulation. Computer- necessary for the development of the digital proficiency required of today’s citizen. – It serves as the sources of information and a system that support teaching. – Plays an important role in recreation or entertainment.Computer Skills- being knowledgeable about the computer and its application. – Ability to manipulate computers. Conceptual knowledge- includes the inner workings of a computer or general computer terminology. Internet- provides plenty of information that serves as a tool for a better performance in school. Depression- a mental state in which students are sad and feel that he/ she cannot enjoy anything because of the unpleasant or difficult situation. Grades – one of the factors that determine the level and quality of students’ academic performance.Operational knowledge- refers to the necessary skills a user may acquires by means of training and practice in order to be able to operate specific systems to complete specific tasks. Punishment – used in eliminating or reducing incorrect actions followed by clarifying desired actions. Self-Efficacy – related to the self evaluation of the abilities for doing some specific tasks. Stimuli – a thing that may motivate the students to become computer literate and study more in school. Violent behavior – effect of too much exposure to computer wherein the students play games instead of studying.

The Use of Virtual Engagement by the British Council Research Proposal

The Use of Virtual Engagement by the British Council - Research Proposal Example It is, therefore, necessary to have a center that offers a platform by which individuals and organizations can come together and discuss matters affecting climate change in the world. Virtual technology, in this case, can be very useful as it will ease the process through which communication is to be done. The British Council on climate change and sustainability initiated an idea of using virtual technology in addressing the issue of discussion on climate change and sustainability (Virtual Engagement: British Council’s Zero Carbon Centre, 2013). This center is to help the individuals and organization to share information on carbon emission and host events with topics on climate change and sustainability and create synergies (O’Neill 2008, 81). The use of virtual technology in the fight against climate change is a very noble idea. The use of virtual technology in zero carbon centers will include a number of topics including; I. Dr. Rebecca initiated the idea behind the use of virtual technology in the creation of the zero carbon centers. The research paper should address Dr. Rebecca Nadin, the director of the program in China. Her ideas led to the creation of the Zero Carbon Centre. Dr. Rebecca is considered as the pioneer of the program as she usually challenged her team to broaden the reach and thoughts of climate change. In addition, it should address the creation and the launch of the Zero Carbon Centre. The research should address the ideas that were brought together and the eventual creation of the center. It should address the procedure through which the center was created and the funding of the finances that were used to create the center. II. The use of virtual technology in the carbon center is the other topic that will be discussed. Communication is the key factor in virtual technology. It is used to bring organizations and people together.  

What evidence do the narrative accounts provide for the diversity of Essay

What evidence do the narrative accounts provide for the diversity of early Christianity - Essay Example The idea of being a shepherd was considered hazardous, tiring, and demanding, but Jesus considered himself as the good Shepherd. According to John 10:11, a shepherd will lay down his life for the sheep while 1st Samuel 17: 34-35 asserts that Jesus is like spirit since he lays down his life for mankind. In addition, Jesus interaction with the Samaritan woman and subsequent telling the Priests that tax collectors and prostitutes would go to heaven drew a lot of controversy among early Christianity. Jesus taught the scriptures privately to a woman which was against the prevailing law and the woman agreed to tell the news to the town. Jesus demonstrated the he was a gift from God by telling a Samaritan woman to give him water according to John 4: 7-27. In the book of Matthew 2:1; 14, 21, Jesus was born in Bethlehem and he subsequently departed to Egypt and finally went to the land of Israel. On the other hand, Luke 1:26;2:1-7, the gospel is clear that Angel Gabriel was sent from God to c ity of Nazareth to Virgin Mary, but the gospel still asserts that Joseph also went from city of Nazareth to Judea in Bethlehem (Hurtado 109). Jesus healing parables attracted a lot of controversy among his followers.

Sigmund Freud Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Sigmund Freud - Essay Example To apply The Big Five personality traits to just Freud's professional persona would be to do him and the assessment a great injustice. This author intends to evaluate Sigmund Freud's personality based correspondence he kept with his most intimate companions, and his reactions to different conflicts. Neuroticism involves characteristics of anxiousness, anger-hostility, depressiveness, self-consciousness, impulsiveness and vulnerability. People who score extremely high on Neuroticism tests are extremely nervous hypersensitive; easily angered, continually depressed, easily embarrassed, extremely impulsive and easily overwhelmed by stress. Those who score very low for Neuroticism lack an appropriate amount of anxiety, are unable to express anger, unable to appreciate losses, indifferent to the opinions of others, restrained or restricted, and dull to danger. Extraversion is characterized by: warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excitement-seeking, and positive emotions. Often people who score high as extraverts on personality exams are inappropriately affectionate, unable to tolerate being alone, domineering, pushy, driven; frantic; distractible reckless, careless, giddy; and they lose control of their emotions. Those who score low can't develop intimate relations; they are socially isolated, resigned, ineffective, sedentary and passive, dull, monotonous, solemn, and unable to enjoy things. People who have aspects of neuroticism in their personality tend to have traits of extraversion as well. Those characterized with a significant openness to experience fantasize a lot; they are idealistic and often very emotional. These people are preoccupied with their daydreams, obsessed with unusual interests, governed by strong emotions, unpredictable; they are preoccupied by strange ideas and lack a guiding belief system. Those who have a low factor of this trait tend to have very sterile imaginations, don't appreciate culture or art, and they rarely have strong feelings about anything. Individuals with a detrimental lack of openness to experience avoid change, stick to routine, and are dogmatic and closed minded. Agreeableness is a factor synonymous with trust, straightforwardness, altruism, compliance, modesty and tender-mindedness. People with a high factor of agreeableness are very gullible, self-disclosing, and they are often victimized. These people have a high inclination towards being submissive. People with this as a predominant factor in their personality often say things like: I feel others' emotions, I make people feel at ease, and I take time out for others. This type of behavior is one that is very vulnerable to be exploited. Finally, conscientiousness involves competence, order, dutifulness, achievement striving, self-discipline, and deliberation. People with this trait are overly perfectionist, preoccupied with rules, workaholics and they have a single-minded pursuit of goals. All of the Big Five personality traits offer a spectrum for perfect analytical insight into one's character. In the case of Sigmund Freud, after a full assessment of his social behavior, it can be argued that both many aspects of Neuroticism and that of Extraversion are prevalently dominant in

Physics of Formula One Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words - 1

Physics of Formula One - Essay Example Enzo Ferrari the legend behind the name Ferrari had a passion for car racing which motivated him to come out with the brand name which is today a household name in the field of F1 races. It was in 1945 that the work started on designing and building the very first Ferrari, a project which was being prepared around 12-cylinder2 – a first in the history which went on to provide a direction to the car in general and car racing in particular. Ferrari was the first car to use 1.5 litre unit in a V12 configuration. Since then the company has not looked back. Ferrari, the car was the brain child of its founder Enzo Ferrari. The journey begins with the foundation of Scuderia, sort of a club, on 16th November 1929, exclusively for participating in motor-racing competitions. Enzo Ferrari an integral part of Alpha Romeo for many decades, parted ways in 1929. When Ferrari left the club, he was not allowed to have his name on any of the cars or clubs for the next four years. But his resolve and patience saw him through in his ventures and he started with an 8-cylinder, 1500 cc sports spider, named as 815. It was only in 1946 that the name Ferrari comes into being for cars. The company has not looked back since then. Thereafter came its association with Michael Schumacher in 1996, which further helped in establishing the brand equity called ‘Ferrari’. The F1 racing is now an integral part of Ferrari. In fact F1 racing has now become a big industry in itself. Such developments have started driving other car manufacturers as well int o the race and serious manufacturers like BMW have also started experimenting with the sporty driving. Though it may sound boring to people watching the racing on the tracks, its television clippings have started commanding huge premium. This potential was foreseen by Mr. Ecclestone of ‘Formula One Administration’, who produces the electronic feed being watched by over 40 billion viewers (The

Nursing informatics Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Nursing informatics - Research Paper Example It is used in the management of the records of the patients. The data pertaining to a given patient can be safely stored and retrieved with ease when required. The technology can also be used to diagnose a patient based on the records that have been obtained. Thus, technology is generally necessary for the diagnosis, treatment, and the management of patients in a health institution (Cleveland Clinic, 2011, para.1). The success of the application of modern information technology in a given health care institution is not obvious. The management of such institutions needs to define and develop an appropriate strategy for integrating the modern technology into their system. A good patient care will be achieved if the use of technology is supported by the processes of the institution and the cooperation among the workers in the institution (Cleveland Clinic, 2011, para.3). The nurses in the health care institutions need to be conversant with the applications of the automated systems in va rious tasks. There is need to develop a joint passion for the profession and the learning of new technology. Thesis statement The application of information technology in nursing practice will be successful in improving the quality of services to the patients if the processes of the health center are well organized and if there is good coordination between the health workers in the organization. 2. Informatics in nursing The practice of nursing involves handling very vital pieces of information relating to the patients’ health that are necessary for proper service delivery (Ball, 2000, p.7). The management of the patients in a given health care institutions is made easier of the records of the patients are available and in an organized manner. The health history of a given patient can be traced and this will help the clinician in making the appropriate diagnosis (Berner, 1999, p.5). There are also pieces of information relating to the nursing practice. These include the proce dures, guidelines, and policies that are applicable in the practice and in a given institution. The nurses would want to obtain these pieces of information from their seniors or communicate them to the other nurses within the institution. There would also be a need to communicate to the patients in certain instances. The way the information is stored, how it can be retrieved, and how it can be communicated to other people will determine its effectiveness. The confidentiality of information is of particular significance in the nursing practice. Besides, the patients should be involved in designing for their care. There is a need for an effective communication between the patient and the nurses. Thus, the information needs to be kept in a secured system that is protected from unauthorized users and from where it cannot be destroyed. There is need to have an organized system that allows for an easy retrieval of information from a large chunk of information. The communication medium nee ds to be fast and efficient and neither should it tamper with the contents of the information. The use of modern technology in these applications is necessary (Berner, 1999, p.139). By using these modern systems, it is easy to organize enormous data so that the retrieval of the required piece of information

In the afterlife, will Leonard deserve punishment for the muders he Essay

In the afterlife, will Leonard deserve punishment for the muders he committed in the flim The Momentum - Essay Example For this essay, it means this: the willful, deliberate commission of a morally incorrect act. Also, for purposes of necessary brevity, let us say that Leonard was not morally justified in the homicides that he committed. It is the opinion of this writer that Leonard will not be punished for the killings he engaged in, due to the caveat in the above definition regarding deliberate action. This implies that the person committing the action must 1. Understand the difference between right and wrong; and 2. Voluntarily choose to do wrong anyway. Given this definition, what sort of acts would be excluded from it? First of all, acts that are purely the results of circumstances outside the person’s actions are not â€Å"wrong,† even though they may cause horrible suffering and tragedy. As an example, imagine a motorist driving along a busy commercial street when a child suddenly runs in front of his car and is truck and killed. Let us say that the driver is not under the influence of drugs or alcohol, and that he is within the speed limit and operating his vehicle in a manner consistent with the principles of responsible driving. Let us also assume that he did not see the child until she was in the path of his car, and that he could not brake in time to prevent striking her fatally. Neither did he have time to swerve his car in another direction. Intention to strike the child, no malice in his heart towards her. It was an unfortunate accident in the purest sense of the word. He should not be punished by the courts for his act, nor by God or some other entity that apportions reward and punishment in the afterlife. In a real sense, in fact, it can be argued that he did not â€Å"act† in this scenario at all. The real culprit in the sad affair was the laws of physics. The man had no knowledge of the coming event and hence was unable to act to prevent it.

Science tells us the truth about reality Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Science tells us the truth about reality - Essay Example The results will therefore explain real behavior of the studied objects and communicate the truth that is observed. Scientific information can also be gathered from people’s opinions and perceptions on reality. Information that is developed from these approaches represents truth because they rely on people’s experiences or rationale from observations. Collecting data on people’s experiences, for example, develops information from people’s real life experiences. It therefore communicates the truth to the extent that the source narrated the truth. Other methods for developing scientific information such as making direct observation or analyzing secondary sources of information also support the position that science tells the truth about nature. This is because the methods are accurate and consistent (Cottrell and McKenzie 194- 196, 230- 234). These mean that science based information is derived from real life experiences and is therefore reflective of the tr uth about the reality that develops it. There are however arguments that science does not tell the truth about nature. The fact that some theories are not developed from actual data means that the theories cannot be proved using real life issues. The theories may therefore lack accuracy and consistency in what they say about reality. Inaccuracy of what science says in the theories may mean that science is not saying the truth. Scientific information may also be true in one area but it may be false in another area because of inconsistency (Cottrell and McKenzie 13). Existence of factors and happenings that science cannot explain also means that science may not be telling us the truth about reality. Logics and mathematical positions are examples of truths that science does not explain. Science only offers assumptions on the positions. Many other scientific positions are based on assumptions that cannot be

USPS Political and Legal Barriers Research Paper

USPS Political and Legal Barriers - Research Paper Example In the different fields varying from security and law enforcement to protecting the environment to free trade, Canada and the United States work together closely on different levels, from federal levels to local levels. The United States Postal Service (USPS) is an organization that provides global postal services to clients worldwide with an average delivery of more than 563 million mails (Joseph, 2010). It provides delivery to inaccessible places and free return if the recipient is not established. Despite USPS providing economical services, the long term growth has declined. The following table shows the cost and revenue trends of USPS from 2004 to 2012; There are main problems being faced by USPS. First, the use of computer gadgets and the advancement of computer technology in communication in both Canada and the U.S., such as smart-phones and use of social media have resulted to increase in paperless communication which results to decline in the need of postal services and decline in the First-Class mail thus reducing sales in both countries. Secondly, the existence of the U.S. federal law that requires USPS to pre-pay more than $5.5 Billion, as benefits cost to the federal government since majority of the employees are under the government’s retirement system has made the organization to pre-fund the retiree health benefits since it is expected to have over $ 8 Billion deficit and therefore has. In this regard, Canadian and other foreign employees are on the losing side since the U.S employees are expected to benefit from this (Globerman & Shapiro, 2003). Third, USPS has many high cost retail units. This poses a problem since the organization cannot close down these units due to U.S. federal bureaucracy that makes the process long, and the resistance by both local and foreign postal workers due to the threat of retrenchment. The organization therefore has resulted to biased closure of some retail units which affects its operation with

Genetic Testing and Counseling in Pregnancy Essay Example for Free

Genetic Testing and Counseling in Pregnancy Essay For many women, pregnancy is met with excitement. However, for a few couples, the pregnancy can take a completely different turn when the fetus is determined to be afflicted with Tay-Sachs disease. This is a genetic condition, usually found in Caucasians, and primarily those of Jewish descent, and develops in 25% of cases when both parents carry the recessive gene (National Tay-Sachs and Allied Diseases [NTSAD], n. d. ). Genetic counseling is a relatively new concept in healthcare and â€Å"is the process of helping people understand and adapt to the medical, psychological and familial implications of genetic contributions to disease† (National Society of Genetic Counselors [NSGC], 2005, para. 2). For the men and women facing a pregnancy involving Tay-Sachs, genetic counseling is a viable and important option to consider. However, to ensure quality care and education, genetic counseling needs to involve a team of healthcare professionals from a variety of backgrounds. Interdisciplinary Team Members and Their Roles in Genetic Counseling Appropriate members of a multi-disciplinary team for the Trosacks include a genetic counselor, a nutritionist or dietician, the high-risk OB-GYN physician, a registered nurse specializing in high-risk perinatal care, and a therapist specializing in marriage and family therapy needs. Each member of this team will add a unique perspective to the Trosack’s case. The genetic counselor has graduate-level education and experience in both medical genetics and counseling (NSGC, 2005, para. 1). Using her expertise and skills, she will review the medical history for Mr. nd Mrs. Trosack, and their families, identify other genetic risks that may exist and explain inheritance patterns. She will provide information and resources for further education on genetic disorders, so that they can continue to learn about Tay-Sachs and connect with other families facing the disease. In addition to this expert information, the Trosacks will benefit from a nutritionist or dietician. The nutritionist not only has special training in the area of nutrition, but also in educating patients about their options and making nutritious choices. In general, a nutritionist can â€Å"advise individuals†¦on the nutritional practices that will promote good health, [and] structure and recommend diet plans for whole families†¦including guides to the correct preparation of meals and shopping for the right foods (Princeton Review, n. d. ). He will perform a nutrition assessment, provide education on additional nutritional needs due to pregnancy, and even assist with meal planning to ensure a health pregnancy. He will continue to assess and make recommendations on Mrs. Trosack’s nutritional needs based on lab work throughout the pregnancy. The patient’s overall care is the responsibility of her OB-GYN, who specializes in high-risk pregnancies. A high-risk OB-GYN has a lengthy education, residency and fellowship history to gain knowledge in caring for older patients, patients with specific medical conditions and patients carrying a pregnancy that has been determined to need specialized care. The perinatologist is not only capable of making diagnoses other obstetricians may miss, but can also perform specialized procedures and administer medications across the placenta (Perinatologists, n. d. ). She will assess the medical needs of Mrs.  Trosack and the fetus throughout the pregnancy, monitor fetal growth and development, order diagnostic tests as needed, and provide referrals to other specialists as needed. Working with the physician will be a nurse specializing in prenatal clients. This nurse has chosen to expand on her nursing education, taking additional classes and obtaining certifications specific to perinatal care. He will assess the couple’s understanding of pregnancy and prenatal care at the first visit and make a plan to educate them on each stage of pregnancy and fetal development as well as options available during labor and delivery. Additionally, he will ensure the couple understanding for each test or referral suggested by the physician. Due to the nature of the diagnosis, the couple will also benefit from a marriage and family therapist on their team. The couple has already expressed exasperation over the diagnosis, and volley between denial and acceptance of the diagnosis. Additionally, Mrs. Trosack has already expressed guilt over her workload and its â€Å"affect† on the baby. Mr. Trosack has expressed anger, which can lead to resentment. The strong emotions felt by both parties need to be expressed in a healthy way to preserve their marriage, and a therapist specializing in family matters is an appropriate facilitator. She will meet with the couple together, as well as individually to assess their feelings about the pregnancy, the Tay-Sachs diagnosis and the feelings they have toward each other. The therapy sessions will continue after the birth of their baby, due to the nature of the disease and the stress the baby’s health will add to their lives. Teaching Plan for the Initial Visit  The teaching plan for the Trosacks’ initial visit at the high-risk pregnancy center will include the following:  ·Genetic diagnosis—The Trosacks need to understand the diagnosis of Tay-Sachs: how it is transmitted, the probability of other pregnancies testing positive, and what symptoms their child is likely to develop. This will help them to understand they have done nothing wrong and prepare for the special needs their child will have.  ·Treatment—No treatment exists for the disease itself, but the Trosacks will benefit from learning about the symptoms their child may develop and how those symptoms are treated. They will be informed of ways to keep their child safe and comfortable during the illness.  ·Prognosis as it applies to Tay-Sachs—The prognosis for infantile Tay-Sachs is poor, with most children becoming progressively worse until their death by age 4 or 5. The Trosacks need to be informed of this so that they can make preparations—for themselves and other family members. Because most children develop normally until around six months of age, the Trosacks need to know that an absence of symptoms does not mean an absence of the disease (NTSAD, n. d. ). They need to know that their time with this child will be limited and filled with doctor visits and difficult medical decisions. With this education and advanced notice, they can begin to discuss which treatments they may consider (medications) and those treatments they may not want to consider (feeding tube).  ·Support groups and appropriate referrals—With the Internet, the community of support for families with Tay-Sachs has greatly expanded. The Trosacks will be given information on local support groups as well as the internet communities available to them. They will be directed to the National Tay-Sachs and Allied Disease, March of Dimes and National Organization for Rare Disorders websites to connect with other families who are living with Tay-Sachs. This support will help the Trosacks connect with the only other people who know what they are going through, share their concerns without fear of judgment, and learn from those have gone through it all personally.  ·Pregnancy information—Information on pregnancy is necessary for any pregnant woman, especially during her first pregnancy. Over the length of the pregnancy, the Trosacks will learn about how pregnancy and fetal development progresses during each trimester, what changes Mrs. Trosack can expect—physically and emotionally, and ways in which Mr. Trosack can be of assistance to her. The first visit will specifically cover the development to date and through the end of the first trimester. They will view pictures of the developing fetus and the ways in which Mrs. Trosack’s body is changing to accommodate the pregnancy. Ethical Implications of Having Genetic Information Available While genetic testing is a wonderful addition to the vast array of diagnostics medicine now offers, it can bring about new ethical implications. In reference to autonomy, genetic testing can sometimes reveal information about one’s family that was not known. For example, a Caucasian family may be surprised to find they are carriers for Sickle Cell disease, a disease found primarily in African-Americans and can bring about questions regarding the family history. These discussions may lead to the ethical issue of perceived invasions of privacy for other family members. Another example would be the dilemmas that occur when there is a difference in societal believes and one’s personal beliefs. First, â€Å"persons with a genetic condition may prefer not to learn that their offspring is at risk for the condition, or they may prefer to have offspring with the same condition present in other family members† (Halsey Lea, Williams, Donahue, 2005, para. 15). Secondly, some people may feel it is unjust to bring a baby with anomalies into the world. The results of genetic testing in these instances may necessitate decisions about continuing pregnancy, selective termination and adoption. A third example of ethical dilemmas in regards to genetic information being available is in relation to beneficence and nonmalificence. For example, clinicians caring for a pregnant patient find the baby she is carrying has spina bifida. The patient states her sister had spina bifida and that she wants to deliver her baby in the community hospital with a midwife. The clinician now must balance her respect for her patient’s wishes with the concern she feels in allowing a baby with special needs to be born in an environment that cannot provide services that may improve the birth’s outcome (Halsey Lea et al. 2005). A fourth ethical issue is that of justice. For, some genetic disorders can be found with testing while others still cannot. For example, â€Å"the ability to identify carrier status for a mutation in the gene for cystic fibrosis is lower among Asian American and African American persons† than it is in Caucasians (Halsey Lea et al. , 2005). Thus, the results of testing performed on an Asian American or African American patient may not be a reliable indicator of their carrier status. Personal Thoughts, Feelings and Advocacy As a woman, this writer cannot begin to imagine the feelings felt by the Trosacks. After years of trying to conceive, they learn that they are finally pregnant only to find out their baby is likely to die by age five from a horrible, progressive disease. If in Mrs. Trosack’s shoes, would this writer be brave enough to continue the pregnancy, knowing the prognosis? I do not know. I am sure, however, that the Trosacks have a difficult road ahead of them. If I were Mrs. Trosack, I would expect to feel a constant state of grief—over the diagnosis and the life my child will not have, the loss of those milestones parents look forward to (first day of school, first dance, etc), the impending months or years of illness. I would hope that I could treasure the better moments I do have with my child—from birth to death, holding her as much as possible, trying to focus on the symptom-free moments, taking as many pictures as I can to record her short life. I question how angry a woman would feel in this situation. Surely, even those women with strong religious beliefs question the â€Å"why† of the diagnosis and circumstance. â€Å"Why, after all this time allow me to conceive if you’re going to give me a child so sick? What is the point of bringing a child into life if they are to suffer throughout? Why us? † Would a woman facing this diagnosis feel as if everyone pities her? While reading the case study, I found myself feeling pity for her, knowing that she would lose her child in such a horrible way after wanting a child so badly. Despite these feelings, the Trosacks’ choice to continue their pregnancy is just that†¦their choice. Many people think that being pro-choice means advocating for abortion. However, it is my belief that being pro-choice means advocating for people to make the best choice for themselves in particular situations. For, only those going through a particular situation know best how well or poorly they can handle a decision and circumstance. Their decision to continue a pregnancy after the diagnosis was made is a brave one and speaks volumes to their character and beliefs. The Trosacks’ case manager will work with each member of the interdisciplinary team to ensure they respect the wishes of the couple. The couple needs to know that they are supported and are being treated without judgment from the team members. She will meet with the team members to ensure they are able to continue treating with couple appropriately. If any of the team members express an inability to refrain from sharing their personal feelings with the couple, she will find suitable replacements. While the team members are entitled to their feelings, they are expected to keep those feelings to themselves when caring for patients. And, when patients are facing emotional and controversial decisions, the separation is even more important. Ethical and Legal Considerations When the Trosacks made the decision to continue the pregnancy after learning their baby has Tay-Sachs, they became bound, legally and ethically, to care for the child after the birth. Ethical considerations include the decision to bring a child into a life of poor health and early death after a progressive decline. Many people in society will judge them for this, and the child will be perceived in certain ways by others. Further, they will be faced with the decision to allow researchers to follow their child in an effort to gain more information about the disease in search for a cure. The child has no autonomy as a minor, and has no right to privacy when her parents are making the decisions. Another ethical question is who owns the genetic information? The genetic information is on the child’s DNA, but the parents are the ones making all the decisions. Legally, there are several areas of concern for the couple. First, they are now bound to provide healthcare to this child, despite the poor prognosis. They must provide food, clothing and shelter, and keep the child safe and comfortable as she declines. The child will eventually develop problems with swallowing, and at that time, will require further interventions to maintain life. Secondly, they are required to provide medical care for the child; and, with the poor prognosis, this is likely to involve many appointments, testing and medications or treatments. Third, they may have problems with insurance coverage, as some insurance policies may consider the child’s diagnosis to be pre-existing, denying coverage for any treatments associated with the disease. Though this is certainly not ethical, it is legal in this country, and may lead to financial problems and difficulty in continuing to obtain quality medical care.

An Ecological Viewpoint On Pollution Environmental Sciences Essay

An Ecological Viewpoint On Pollution Environmental Sciences Essay Pollution is the effect of undesirable changes in our surroundings that have harmful effects on plants, animals and human beings. This occurs when only short term ecological gains are made at the cost of long term ecological benefits for humanity. During the last few decades we have polluted our air, water and land on which life itself depends with a variety of waste products. From an ecological point of view, pollutants can be classified as degradable or non-persistent pollutants which can be rapidly broken down by natural process.eg: domestic sewage, discarded vegetables etc., Slowly-degradable or persistent pollutants are pollutants that remain in the environment for many years in an unchanged condition and take decades or longer to degrade.eg:DDT(pesticides) and most plastics. Non-degradable pollutants cannot be degraded by natural processes. Once they are released into the environment they are difficult to eradicate and continue to accumulate.eg: toxic elements like lead or mercury and nuclear wastes. Pollution is a very wide topic. This thesis focuses on two major pollutions- air and water, and explains in detail the causes, effects and control measures. Air pollution occurs due to the presence of undesirable solid or gaseous particles in the air in quantities that are harmful to human health and the environment. The air may become polluted by natural causes such as volcanoes, which release ash, dust, sulphur and other gases, or by forest fires that are occasionally caused by lightening. However, unlike pollutants from human activity, naturally-occuring pollutants tend to remain in the atmosphere for a short time and do not lead to permanent atmospheric change. Air pollution began to increase in the beginning of the twentieth century with the development of transportation systems and large-scale use of petrol and diesel. These severe air quality problems due to the formation of petrochemical smog from the combustion residues of diesel and petrol engines were felt for the first time in Los Angeles. Pollution due to auto- exhaust remains a serious environmental issue in many developed and developing countries, including, India. The air pollution control act in India was passed in 1981 and the motor vehicle act for controlling air pollution was passed very recently. These laws are intended to prevent the air from becoming over polluted. The greatest industrial disaster leading to serious air pollution took place in Bhopal, where the extremely poisonous methyl isocyanides gas was accidently released from the Union Carbides pesticide manufacturing plant, on the night of December 2, 1984. The effects of this disaster on human health and the soil are felt even today. Lead is a major air pollutant that remains largely unmonitored and is emitted by vehicles. High lead levels have been reported in the ambient air in metropolitan cities. Leaded petrol is the primary source of air-borne lead emissions in Indian cities. The use of unleaded petrol is one way of reducing this pollutant. Pollutants are also found indoors from the infiltration of polluted outside air and from various chemicals used or produced inside buildings. The effects of air pollution on living organisms are adverse. Cigarette smoking is responsible for the greatest exposure to carbon monoxide. Exposure to air containing even 0.001% of carbon monoxide for several hours can cause coma and even death. Sulphur dioxide irritates the respiratory tissues; chronic exposure to it causes a condition similar to bronchitis. The acids can become attached to particles which, when inhaled, are very corrosive to the lungs. The widely talked changes in the ozone layer have serious implications for mankind. The effects on human health due to increased UV radiation are sunburn, cataract, aging of the skin and skin cancer. It weakens the immune system by suppressing the bodys resistance to certain infections like measles, chickenpox and other viral diseases that elicit rash and parasitic diseases like malaria introduced through the skin. UV rays also affect the ability of plants to capture light energy during the process of photosynthesis. This reduces the nutrient content and the growth of plants. This is seen especially in the case of legumes and cabbage. Air pollution can be controlled by two fundamental approaches: preventive techniques and effluent control. One of the effective means of controlling air pollution is to have proper equipment in place. This includes devices for removal of pollutants from the flue gases through scrubbers, closed-collection recovery systems, and the use of dry and wet collectors, filters, electrostatic precipitators and so on. Building higher smoke-stacks facilitates the discharge of pollutants as far away from the ground as possible. Industries should be carefully located so as to minimize the effects of pollution after considering the topography and the wind directions. The substitution of raw materials that cause more pollution with those that cause less pollution will also help. Water pollution is when the quality or composition of water changes directly or indirectly as a result of mans activities such that it becomes unfit for any purpose it is said to be polluted. Point sources of pollution are when a source of pollution can be readily identified because it has a definite source and place where it enters the water it is said to come from a point source. E.g.: municipal and industrial discharge pipes. Non-point sources of pollution are when a source of pollution cannot be readily identified, such as agricultural runoff, acid rain etc., There are several classes of common water pollutants. These are disease causing agents which include bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms that enter water from domestic sewage and untreated human and animal wastes. Large amounts of human waste in water increases the number of these bacteria, which cause gastrointestinal diseases. Other potentially harmful bacteria from human wastes may also be present in smaller numbers. Thus, the greater the amount of wastes in the water, the greater is the chance of contracting diseases. The third class of pollutants is inorganic plant nutrients. These are water -soluble nitrates and phosphates that cause the excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants. The quantity of fertilizers applied in a field is often many times more than actually required by plants. The chemicals in fertilizers and pesticides pollute both soil and water. A fourth class of water pollutants is water- soluble inorganic chemicals, which are acids, salts and compounds of toxic metals such as mercury and lead. High levels of these chemicals can make the water unfit to drink, harm fish and other aquatic life, reduce crop yields and accelerate the corrosion of equipment that is in contact with this water. Another cause of water pollution is a variety of organic chemicals, which includes oil, gasoline, plastics, pesticides, cleaning solvents, detergents and many other chemicals. These are harmful to aquatic and human health. They enter the water directly from industrial activity, either from improper handling of chemicals in industries and usually from the improper and illegal disposal of chemical wastes. The foremost necessity of controlling water pollution is prevention. On the other hand, setting up effluent treatment plants to treat wastes can reduce the pollution load in the recipient water. The treated effluent can be reused for either gardening or cooling purposes, wherever possible. A few years ago a new technology, called the Root Zone Process has been developed by Thermax. This system involves running contaminated water through root zones of specially-designed reed beds. To conclude, the responsibility to prevent pollution lies in the hands of every individual. Some concepts that help individuals contribute towards a better quality of our environment and human life are: Try to plant trees wherever you can and more importantly take care of them. They reduce air pollution. From the mail you receive reuse as many envelopes as you can. Use pesticides in your home only when absolutely necessary and use them in small amounts. Some insect species help to keep a check on the populations of pest species. Reduce the use of fossil fuels by either walking short distances or using a car pool, sharing a bike or using public transport. This reduces air pollution. Shut off the lights and fans when not needed. Do not use aerosol spray products and commercial air-fresheners. They damage the ozone layer. Do not pour pesticides, paints, solvents, oil or other products containing harmful chemicals down the drain or onto the ground. Buy consumer goods in refillable glass containers instead of cans or throwaway bottles. Try to avoid asking for plastic carry bags when you buy groceries or vegetables or any other items. Use your own cloth bag instead. Set up a compost bit in your garden to produce manure and reduce use of fertilizers.

India Is A Secular Country

India Is A Secular Country I think one of our contradictions and limitations of our democracy was conferral of group rights. Through this provision every religion most importantly Christianity and Muslims can have their own set of religious rights including having their own personal law and all the religious institutions are free to propaganda their own religion and raise money without taxes. Since 1947,Various religions,castes and tribes have been accommodated in our country through group rights, liberal constitutionalism and layered federalism.(Bajpai,2003) I think adopting group rights in our constitution it led to a form of liberalism discourse where as there is a conflict between state sovereignty and Individual rights. In India the concept of religion is deeply rooted, from time to time the ruling classes and the forces which want to control the society has always used religion to mobilise people for electoral votes. In the post-1947 period, all the political parties in order create their exclusive vote banks, they resort to linguistic, regional, religious identities which leads to polarisation among the masses. For eg: targeting Muslim vote banks, congress always appeased the fundamentalists of the community and agreed to all their religious demands while ignoring the basic issues of Muslims which would enable their political participation and economic and cultural development. The political parties to divert the attention of people from miserable ground realities will come up with deceptive slogans and issues. Exploiting the media they will create religious and communal differences among the common masses for their political interests. The decade of 1980s was a decade which saw secular-nationalis t discourse. Its the time when the Indian Identity got fragmented into various smaller sectional identities. To put it in Foucauldian terms Insurrection of littleselves . He notes that this modern form of power is characterized by an immensely flexible braiding of coercion and consent (Nigam,2000).In 80s, BJP, a Hindu nationalist, right wing party dubbed the Congresss secularism as Pseudo-secularism. The secular theory was condemned in the context that it did not respect the wishes and interests of Hindu majority; They felt Hindus were the ones most affected by it. They claimed it pampered the minority, especially Muslims and lower caste. By not respecting Hindu values, it snubs the Indian idea of secularism which calls for à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾equal respect for all religions (sarva dharma-sambhav). According to BJP, true secularism, can only be achieved through true equality, which must start from the premise that Hindus constitute the majority population (Hansen 1996). The real pursuit of the discourse of Hindu Nationalism is to achieve equality through difference. The rise of religious identities in India is questioning the fundamental values of democracy. Though Hindu nationalism was steadily growing in 1980s it got radicalized in 1990s. The actors behind this radicalization were assertiveness of lower caste, underperforming political- administrative system (license Raj), increased insecurity because of Globalisation and feeling of dislocation of nation and national identity. The fervour of Hindu nationalism was at its peak at this time and struck chord with Hindu middle classes. Thus Nation-state became a vehicle to disseminate hindutva Ideology. This dogmatism resulted in the demolition of babri masjid. In this discourse to Hindu Nationalism, Muslims were demonized as operational others as they are constraining India to achieve modernity because their cultural obsoleteness and population overgrowth. Also they are considered to be the reason for the dislocation of the nation in the past and the contemporary times. They according to Hindu nationalism, also block the full realization of democracy due to their block voting and stunt the full development of a tolerant secularism due to their intransigence and intolerance (Hansen 1996). Thus the varied notions of authenticity, sovereignty and superiority among these religious groups especially Hindus and Muslims and discourse of rights and equality among these social groups lead to Hindu Nationalism. Hindu Nationalist discourse sought to portray the muslims as inherently doctrine, undemocratic, anti-modern and patriarchal. Hindutva forces like RSS,BJP used a religious language to create a political discourse. To acquire power Hindtuva forces came up with a political ideology to influence the voters and mobilise them on religious grounds by making them increasingly religious consciousness. Hindutvas manifested Hinduism was more hegemonic, chauvinistic and political in character. Hindutva politics used selective religious symbolism that forms a to promote a particular version of Hinduism that fitted the RSSs larger vision of the nation-state by wiping those ideologically inconvenient components of Hinduism. The whole Hindu nationalist movement promoted a view that religion no longer needs to be hidden from the public space, under the garb of secularism. Hindutva forces adapted an aggressive and chauvinistic form of Hinduism. For eg: They brought out the whole concept of Bharartha Matha who is pictured as one form of Hindu kali. During processions they calls for Hindu unity are common and one frequently heard chant is This country is a Hindu country! Its the Hindu peoples own country! Most prevalent of all is Om Kali! Jai Kali! Bharatmata ki jai! In other words, while proclaiming victory in Hindi to Mother India unambiguously understood as Bharat, Hindu India it is supremely violent Kali who is invoked and praised. RSSs activists say Kalis name inspires courage in them, but almost all slogans are plainly intended, too, to be aggressively Hindu and they are understood as such by Muslims and Christians, who hear them most vigorously, yelled out when a procession passes a mosque or church.  [1]   The thematic Hindu nationalism sought the support of religious institutions, orders and festivals in this regard. Among the various festivals, Hindutva has systematically targeted few religious festivals like Ganesh Chaturthi for political purposes. Through indoctrination of colourful, seductive processions the Hindutva forces on a daily basis succeeds in Hinduisation of the public spheres. Lot of Hindu festivals are no more a symbol of religious and cultural traditions but are symbols of communalism. In the name of nationalist ideology, Hindutva forces manifest Hinduism through various institutions in an attempt to make the public internalise Hinduvta ideas which indirectly influences the masses in everyday life. Thus these political elites artificially constructed this whole atmosphere of Hindu-Muslim antagonism through indoctrination and enfranchisement of manifested religious ideas and portrayed muslims as enemies. This resulted in systematic excorcision of muslims.Thus this resurgence of religious identities is not a problem of democracy or secularism its a problem of political vested interests executed through our democratic institutions. Muslims in India are increasingly facing socially exclusion. Muslims are looked at with suspicion and contempt. Its a very disturbing trend to see reports like Muslims are not able to find homes  [2]  and the highest number of untrailed cases are from muslim community  [3]  . How can we be a good democracy if Minorities of our country doesnt feel at peace? A liberal secular democracy shouldnot tolerate matters of faith triumphing over ourconstitution. Religion should not interfere in state affairs. Understanding tolerance as secularism is wrong.as citizens regardless of which community we belong to we must not tolerate certain things.

The Use of Flashback in Kenneth Branaghs Henry V Essay -- Film, Movie

The Use of Flashback in Kenneth Branagh's Henry V Â   In Kenneth Branagh's film adaptation of William Shakespeare's Henry V flashback is used at key moments to comment on the action and to explain points in Henry's past, and how that past effects his present judgment. Certain scenes and lines are borrowed from parts one and two of Shakespeare's Henry IV to do this. The result is an amalgam of scenes, lines, and characters which brings about a telling expose of Henry V, and the man he was before becoming king of England. Flashback is used in this adaptation directly, to establish key points and players in Henry's life, as well as in a less direct manner, coming through in his current actions, to show his sovereignty, what that means to him and why. The initial flashback scene displays a memory of Pistol's concerning Sir John Falstaff (portrayed by actor Robbie Coltrane). The flashback occurs while Falstaff is on his deathbed, and his remaining friends lament his impending loss. Branagh gives Pistol a line of Falstaff's, describing Falstaff in his own words as "A goodly, portly man, in faith," (1 Henry IV. II. iv. 421), apparently to establish Falstaff as the well loved character he seems to be in the Branagh film. Falstaff is shown as the jolly jester in this flashback, and not at all as the dangerous, mischief making deceiver he is in the texts, themselves. Branagh focuses on the pathos of Falstaff, to display his rejection as an unfortunate one. It is in this flashback that the audience sees the Machiavellian seeds being sewn in Prince Hal's personality as he shows his willingness to banish "valiant Jack Falstaff", however it is not shown where these seeds came from. Falstaff advises his young friend not to banish him f... ...am Shakespeare's Henry V, Branagh uses flashback in more than one way to retell the classic story of King Henry V. Both in actual, and implied flashback Branagh shows the true character of Henry, along with what makes him the king that he is and what gets him to this point in his life. The byproducts of the humanization of Falstaff, and the vilification of Bardolph, coupled with the unique look at Henry's image of his father gives the audience a very different look at this life story, but one which is nonetheless accurate, and entertaining. Works Cited Henry V. Dir. Kenneth Branagh. The Samuel Goldwyn Company, 1989. Kliman, Bernice W. "Branagh's Henry V: Allusion and Illusion." Shakespeare on Film Newsletter. 14.1 (Dec. 1989): 1+. Shaw, William P. "Textual Ambiguities and Cinematic Certainties in Henry V." Literature Film Quarterly. 22.2 (1994): 117-28.

Critical Essay Of Slaughterhouse Five -- essays research papers

Slaughterhouse Five   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Critics of Kurt Vonnegut’s are unable to agree on what the main theme of his novel Slaughterhouse Five may be. Although Vonnegut’s novels are satirical, ironical, and extremely wise, they have almost no plot structure, so it is hard to find a constant theme. From the many people that the main character Billy Pilgrim meets, and the places that he takes us, readers are able to discern that Vonnegut is trying to send the message that there will always be death, there will always be war, and humans have no control over their own lives.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Most of the book is the narrative from Billy Pilgrim a unique character who has the ability to become â€Å"unstuck in time†, which means that he can uncontrollably drift from one part of his life to another â€Å"and the trips aren’t nessicarilly fun†. The whole books is organized in the same way Billy moves in time. In consists of numerous sections and paragraphs strung together in no chronological order, seemingly at random. The whole narration is written in the past tense, so that the reader cannot identify where the author’s starting point is. This aspect of the book is almost identical with the Tralfamadorian type of book:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"There isn’t any particular relationship between all the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  messages, except that the author has chosen them carefully, so that,when seen all at once, they produce an image of life that is beautiful and suprising and deep. There is no beginning, no middle, no end, no suspense, no moral, no causes, no effects. What we love in our books are the depths of many marvelous moments seen all at one time.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I agree with Mark Vit when he says that the most often expressed theme of the book is that we, as people, are â€Å"bugs in amber†. The phrase first appears when Billy is kidnapped by the Tralfamacorian flying saucer:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Welcome aboard, Mr. Pilgrim.† said the loudspeaker. ‘Any questions,?’   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Billy licked his lips, thought a while, inquired at least: ‘Why me?’   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  That is a very Earthling quest... ...  When a Tralfamadorian sees a corpse, all he thinks is that the dead person is in bad condition in that particular moment, but that the same person is just fine in plenty of other moments. Now, when I myself hear that somebody is dead I simply shrug and say   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  what the Tralfamadorians say about dead people, which is â€Å"so it goes†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Because of passages like this, many people are able to draw inferences to an almost spiritual quality in the book. The ideas that the Tralfamadorians hold defiantly point to predestination and maybe even a type of eternal life.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  So what was Vonnegut trying to say to us? That it does not matter what we do in our lives because they will end up the say way regardless? Several people have read the book and come away with that message.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Regardless of Vonnegut’s intent, his final product was a book about the absurdity of war and death. Someone may live a noble life or be a war hero, but in the end, they will die, and the war will go on. It is futile to try and change the cycle.

file vaults :: essays research papers

File Vault Help This software is free to use. In a recent article in Defense News (Vol 12 No 31) Aug 4-10, 1997 William Crowell, National Security Agency deputy director said "If a product of 64-bit strength were used by a military org... it would take 6,000 to 7,000 years to recover just one message." 1. File Vault - 64-bit (8 bytes) block encryption algorithm variable length key up to 448 bits File Vault - Places a number of user selected files in a single self extracting / self decrypting executable file called a File Vault. A File Vault can be sent easily to anyone over the internet and only accessed with your password. The recipient of a File Vault does not have to have any special software installed to decrypt or access a file vault. Each File Vault is totally self contained. This makes for easy attaching, receiving and general use. File Vault allows you to open the vault, access the files, then close the vault which performs a secure wipe of the files from the disk surface. In an encrypted file vault, filename information is encrypted too, so if someone examines the vault with a disk editor, no information on contents is available other than the optional description line entered during creation. Great for "Your Eyes Only" files... The encryption algorithm is the highly regarded BLOWFISH by Bruce Schneier, world renowned Cryptographer. See VGP information below for more detail. File Vault is available at... www.alcuf.ca/fv - - - - A word on compression: When you use Winzip or other compression utilities from Windows, they often will create temporary files that can reside on the users system which are complete duplicate files, or parts of files that you would rather be fully secured. Therefore, rather than zipping files and containing them in a vault, build a vault first which securly containes your files, and then create the zip (or other archive) file. That way any temporary stuff created by the archiver will be encrypted and remain secure. - - - - 2. Other free utilities included with File Vault --------------------------------------------- The following utilities are stand alone utilities that reside on your File Vault directory. These can be moved or deleted as you wish. DISKWIPE.EXE (and diskinfo.dll) - this utility is used to securly remove deleted information from a hard drive to prevent undeleting. Let's say you have a bunch of stuff you just deleted, and need to make sure nothing that was on the system can be undeleted and accessed again. This utility creates a file the size of the free remaining space on your drive and fills it with space, then deletes it.

Low cost airlines are an environmental disaster

A low-cost carrier or low cost airline is an airline that offers generally low fares in exchange for eliminating many traditional passenger services. The concept originated in the United States before spreading to Europe in the early 1990s and subsequently to much of the rest of the world. The term originated within the airline industry referring to airlines with a low – or lower – operating cost structure than their competitors. Through popular media the term has since come to define any carrier with low ticket prices and limited services regardless of their costs. While most discount airlines have more fuel-efficient fleets than older carriers, their significant contribution to sky traffic is unprecedented. Commercial passenger airlines, especially low cost and Internet sales-based carriers, are experiencing growth internationally. In the United States, airline flight sales dropped 30 percent directly following September 11, but have since made a comeback and are now experiencing slow but steady growth.Today, the U.S. has been able to maintain its place as the leading nation in air travel, and North America accounts for 40 percent of worldwide air traffic. Low-cost airlines such as Jet Blue Airways have led this domestic growth, topping the Bureau of Transportation charts for domestic profit gains. Airline sales in Asia are escalating as well, and the skies are becoming increasingly more crowded. In China alone, the market is projected to grow more than 200 percent from 1999 to 2014. While these flares may seem like a dream come true for low-budget travelers, the resulting surge in air traffic carries with it major environmental costs. Even with the more fuel-efficient technology that has evolved over the last 30 years, air travel remains a significant contributor to climate change. Air transport has increased twice as fast as road transport over the last 40 years. Air travel produces more carbon dioxide per km travelled for each passenger than car travel. There are clearly environmental effects increasing as a result of air travel, while others are decreasing or staying constant. Environmentalists say airlines rate as one of the most polluting forms of transport, with 16,000 commercial jets producing over 600 million tonne of carbon dioxide every year. Meanwhile, precise guidelines on international aircraft emissions are excluded from the Kyoto Protocol, with the stipulation that airline emission reform must be taken up by a separate organization, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). Internationally, fuel used for aviation is tax exempt, and according to ICAO Secretariat John Crayston, â€Å"While the ICAO has established emissions standards for certain emissions there are no standards for CO2.† The International Air Transport Association (IATA) estimates that aviation's share in climate change is at about 3.5 percent of the total contributions, which is predicted to climb to five percent by 2050. According to the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), aerosol particles that are emitted in aviation such as soot, metals and sulfuric acid can indirectly influence climate change by causing additional cirrus clouds to form, which in turn trap the heat rising from the Earth's surface. The IPCC projects an overall global temperature increase from 34.7 to 40.1 degrees Fahrenheit between 1990 and 2100. Unlike in the US where a large number of domestic flights emit carbon dioxide over one area, the SDC has said that 97% of UK air transport is non-domestic, with carbon dioxide emissions generated on flights between countries. PARIS – The European boom in †low-cost† airlines, fueled by tax incentives, is increasing the level of toxic gases in the atmosphere and displacing less polluting and more efficient means of transportation for shorter distances, like trains. The Kyoto Protocol and the UK government's energy White Paper targets do not currently cover emissions from international aviation, as there is no global agreement on the allocation of these emissions to countries. It may not mean that the industry would be destroyed, but there are much more efficient and effective tools when it comes to dealing with emissions. One other possibility that has been put forward by the airline industry is emissions trading. Numbers passing through UK airports expected to double to 400m by 2030.Air travel is growing globally at about 5% a year. At the forefront of this revolution are the low-cost, no-frills carriers such as Ryanair, Easyjet and Buzz, which are growing at a phenomenal rate. In June, Easyjet passenger numbers were up more than 50% on the same month last year. Ryanair increased by 34% and Go saw an incredible 72% rise. The lesson learned from these airlines, especially post-11 September, is as clear as it is simple – the cheaper your fares, the more people will fly. But if air travel is allowed to grow unchecked in this way, it will spell disaster for the planet, say environmentalists. More flights mean bigger, busier airports, which in turn means more noise and growing problems with air quality for those who live and work close to airports. But perhaps the biggest concern is the effect on global warming. The problem for environmentalists is that while efforts are being made to cut CO2 emissions from cars and industry, nothing is being done to rein in the airlines. Climatic change Burning aviation fuel releases greenhouse gases predominantly carbon dioxide (CO2) into the environment, causing the Earth to heat up leads to global warming and the process of climate changes such as higher sea levels, devastating floods and droughts. Air traffic worldwide produces emissions of more than 600 million tons of carbon dioxide. In addition, it releases nitrates, ash, sulfates and water vapor. Some of these substances deplete ozone in the atmosphere. This layer of ozone gas is crucial for protecting life on Earth from the Sun's harmful rays. Flying also releases nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides, and even the vapour trails – contrails – left by planes are thought to be a hazard. It's been suggested that they add to the insulating effect of cirrus clouds on our climate. The Britain-based environmental group Tourism Concern predicts that by 2015 half of the annual destruction of the ozone layer will be caused by commercial air traffic and the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimates aviation causes 3.5 per cent of man-made global warming and that figure could rise to 15 per cent by 2050. NASA scientists say condensation trails from jet exhausts create cirrus clouds that may trap heat rising from the earth’s surface. This could account for nearly all the warming over the United States between 1975 and 1994. The guidelines on international aircraft emissions were excluded from the Kyoto protocol on climate change and aviation fuel is tax exempt. Aerospace firms have made huge leaps forward, with commercial jets now 70 per cent more fuel efficient per passenger kilometre (mile) than they were 40 years ago, thanks to better engines, lighter materials and aerodynamic designs. Optimists, including Easyjet, pin their hopes on technology to make planes more efficient. And cost-obsessed carriers are continuously searching for ways to use capacity better, find more direct flight paths and cut congestion in order to trim the hefty fuel bills which make up 25 per cent of airline operating costs. Most discount airlines have young, more fuel-efficient fleets and newer airlines in regions such as Asia have leap-frogged older technologies to buy new planes. Hundreds of flights by subsidized airlines in Europe are endangering the global climate and the ozone layer. For now, they fly free of environmental regulations. The industry believes this Air Passenger Duty (APD), which raises  £800m a year, can be regarded as a form of environmental compensation. It may not mean that the industry would be destroyed, but there are much more efficient and effective tools when it comes to dealing with emissions. Since April this year, airlines that use Heathrow Airport have been charged for nitrogen oxide emissions and carriers emitting less receive a rebate. This will happen in Gatwick in a year or so. One other possibility that has been put forward by the airline industry is emissions trading. Under this scheme, to help with the environmental costs caused by civil aviation pollution, by 2008, the industry would pay for other industries, such as the nuclear fuels sector, to reduce their carbon emissions. The proposal has been put forward to the European Commission, and includes an incentive for airlines to pay less into emissions trading if they use more environmentally friendly aircraft. The FOE says emissions trading, and the proposal to differentiate landing charges at airports according to noise levels and air pollution, outlined in last year's aviation White Paper, has potential. The issue of an aviation fuel tax is not top of the international climate change agenda, because it will have to be confronted at a global level. There are a lot of domestic issues the government has to deal with, areas that damage the environment more than the 5% of carbon dioxide emissions caused by the airline industry.On this basis, the likelihood of low-cost air fares rising in the near future is an unlikely one. References BBC news Europe. 2005 . EU plans airline CO2 reductions. [online] http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/europe/4287048.stm . [ 18 November 2006] Christian Dietsche. 2005. The high price of low-cost airlines. [online] http://www.cafebabel.com/en/ [18 November 2006] Daniel Mann. 2004. Calls to control low-cost flights.[online]   [ 18 November 2006] Jonathan Duffy. 2002. The high price of low-cost airlines. [online] http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/low/uk/2327487.stm [ 19 November 2006] Julio Godoy.2004. EUROPE: The True Cost of Flying. [online] http://www.ipsnews.net/africa/interna.asp?idnews=26687 Michael Smith. 2006. Branson launches plan to cut aviation emissions.[online]. http://ca.news.yahoo.com/s/reuters/060927/business/business_airlines_virgin_col Nicolas E. Antoine . , Ilan M. Kroo. 2002. Aircraft optimization for minimal environmental impact. 9th AIAA/ISSMO Symposium on Multidisciplinary Analysis and Optimization. 4-6 September 2002, Atlanta, Georgia

Book Analysis: The Science of Muddling Through

A Summary of The Science of Muddling by By Charles E. Lindblom Public Administration Review, Vol. XIX, n one(a) 2 (Spring, 1959), 79-88 I. Introduction This article discusses dickens resistent strategies for comparing policies. The first strategy, Lindblom entitles fall, or Rational-Comprehensive Lindblom refers to the second strategy as break, or consecutive confine Comparisons. After a brief explanation of the devil carcasss, he goes on to argue the superiority of the furcate system over the more crudely discussed germ system II. RootThe Root apostrophize, or Rational-Comprehensive, is best utilized for more easy problems, accord to Lindblom, due to the necessitation of massive mind capacities and sources of information. He states that this climb is generally non constitute for insurance insurance polity abridgment, as beat and money ar restrictions in these scenarios. He besides states that in the public eye(predicate) agencies atomic number 18 eff icaciously instructed non to practice the base rule, due to political or legal constraints Ironically, the common literature hunts to preach formalization of this rule. This widens to galore(postnominal) practitioners acting against the philosophy comm solo published.Lindblom lists the characteristics of the Root approach as the pursual light of regard ass or objectives distinct from and unremarkably prerequisite to empirical analysis of ersatz policies.Policy-formulation is therefore approached through with(predicate) actor-end analysis First, the ends argon isolated, then the means to achieve them argon sought.The screen of a unspoiled indemnity is that it whoremonger be sh protest to be the well permit means to desired ends.Analysis is plenary both important relevant agent is defecaten into account.Theory is often heavily relied upon.As this surmisal is often discussed, Lindblom assumes it is familiar to the reader and shifts his cerebrate to explainin g and explain the alternating(a). Most of the article revolves rough the beginning approach, or resultant Limited Comparisons. III. process The Branch Approach, or Successive Limited Comparisons is the approach Lindblom claims virtually decision makers drill for their approach to understanding Byzantine problems. Lindblom assigns the following characteristics to the Branch approachSelection of value goals and empirical analysis of the rented action at law are non distinct from one an separate but are closely intertwined. Since means and ends are not distinct, means-end analysis is often inappropriate or exceptional.The probe of a good form _or_ system of government is typically that various analysts find themselves directly agreeing on a indemnity (without their agreeing that it is the to the highest degree appropriate means to an concur objective).Analysis is drastically modifiedImportant assertable outcomes are neglected.Important alternating(a) potential pol icies are neglected.Important affected value are neglected.A episode of comparisons greatly reduces or eliminates reliance on possibility.The Branch approach could be illustrated as continually building out from the modern situation, slowly, by picayune periods, one step at a time. Lindblom then elaborates on the Branch approach throughout the remainder of the article. a. Intertwining Evaluation and semiempirical Analysis In this section, Lindblom explains how the Root system breaks down its handling of objectives and set. He states that clarifying values prior to investigating alternative policies produces several problems. The first problem is that citizens, congressmen, and public administrators a great deal disagree on numerous critical values.Second, even when an administrator opts to consider his own value set for guidance, he often will not take for sex how to rank conflicting criterion. A troika problem arises concurrent to the previous two Social objectives do not ever have the same relative values. These common problems often lead administrators to ask a question like the following devoted the degree to which we are or are not already achieving the values of good public relations, is it worth sacrificing a diminutive speed for a happier clientele, or is it break away to risk offending the clientele so hat we butt end get on with our work? The answer, of course, varies agree to the situation. The demoteicular difficultness with values is the issue with attempting to state borderline objectives in forms other than particular policies. This leaves administrators attempting to tell apart between policies that offer dissentent bare(a) combinations of values. Lindblom closes this argument with two summarizing points. First, for complex problems, the Root system is impossible and irrelevant, while the Branch system is possible and relevant.The Branch manner is possible because the administrator does not bring to attempt to analy ze any values except those where the alternative policies differ, and this differentiation is scarce notable marginally. This drastically reduces the need for store information on values or objectives, which keeps the capacity for comparing values within reason. b. Relations Between Means and Ends Generally, and according to the Root method, decision-making is considered to be a means-ends relationship.The means are to be evaluated and selected depending upon the ends which is selected independently and ahead choosing the means. But this is difficult unless the values have been agreed upon and are stable at the margin. This relationship between the means and the ends does not exist with the branch method, as both are chosen simultaneously. c. The Test of bang-up Policy Under the Root method, a decision rouse be considered correct if it can be shown to attain several(prenominal) specified objective. This objective must be defined beyond just describing the factual decision.If administrators cannot agree on the objectives, the Root method offers no render For the Branch method, the test is obligation on the actual policy, which whitethorn be possible even when agreement on values has proven impossible. unalike ideologies can agree on different policies, even if the agreement is based on different reasoning. Lindblom states that agreement on policy thus becomes the only practicable test of the policys correctness. The Branch method relies upon agreement whenever possible. d. Non-Comprehensive Analysis It is impossible to take every important aspect of a problem into onsideration unless the problem is very narrowly defined, therefore limiting analysis. Simplification of complex problems is imperative.Lindblom illustrates that under the Root method, simplification is achieved systematically through limitation of policy comparisons to those policies that differ in relatively small degree from policies stick inly in effect. It is only inevitable to s ubscribe to the aspects in which the alternatives and their consequences differ from the current norm. This limitation reduces the alternatives under consideration and simplifies the investigating of each of these alternatives.It only becomes necessary to study the respects in which the proposed alternative and its consequences differ from that norm. i. Relevance as Well as Realism In the west, policy analysts run to limit their analysis to marginal differences in policies that are chosen to differ incrementally. Democracies tend to change policies incrementally. By simplifying the policy by limiting the focus to slight deviations, the most value is made of available information. Non-incremental policy proposals are therefore typically not only politically irrelevant, but also unpredictable. Another way to simplify analysis is by ignoring important potential consequences of the possible policies, and also ignoring the values associated with those neglected consequences. purge if the exclusions are made at random, the policies whitethorn be formulated more intelligently than by attempting to achieve a largeness which is too extensive. ii. Achieving a Degree of voluminousness The potential for losing important values is present in any government. The benefit of a hypothetical division of labor is that every important value has its own guard dog these watchdogs can guard their respective interests in two ways.First, they whitethorn redress alter done by other agencies. Second, they may anticipate and avoid injury in the first place it happens. In the United States, no part of government attempts comprehensive policy overviews on things such as income distribution, yet a policy evolves. This incremental policy-making convention fits with the multiple pressure pattern. When this particular fictitious character of policy-making model is followed, it is easier for one free radical to anticipate the moves of another group. It is also easier for these groups to rack up adjustments for injuries already accomplished.Administrative coordination occurs as each of these agencies adjusts its policies according to the concerns of the other agencies in a unconnected form of decision-making. Branch method exclusions are deliberate and systematic, yet it does not of necessity disregard long-run considerations. Sometimes the only way long-run objectives can be given enough attention is through neglecting the short-term considerations. e. Succession of Comparisons The last chemical element concerns the comparisons. These comparisons proceed in a chronological order. When the policy maker uses a succession of incremental changes, serious lasting mistakes can be avoided.First, he learns from past sequences of policy steps, and gains knowledge of the probable consequences of similar steps. Second, he can avoid big jumps that may require predictions he does not have the knowledge to adequately make. This is because he never expects his policy to be the final resolution. Third, he is able to test his previous predictions as he slowly moves on to the movement steps. Fourth, past errors can be persistent relatively quickly. For policy-making purposes, the analyst need only know the consequences of each of the policy aspects as they differ from the others. iii. Theorists and PractitionersThe Branch system explains why administrators often feel that distant experts are not helpful and would kinda work off of gut disposition than following the advice proposed by theorists. Lindblom gives two reasons why theory can have limited applicability in policy-making. First, it is greedy for facts and can be construed only through a great collection of observations. Second, it is generally insufficiently precise for application to a policy process that moves through small changes. exactly in restricted areas is economic theory precise enough to become specially helpful when resolving policy questions. v. Successive Comparison as a f ormation Lindblom concludes that the Branch system is indeed a legitimate system, despite its imperfections.He reminds the reader that the Branch method lacks a built-in care for all relevant values, and it may lead the decision-maker to overlook potential policies simply because they are not suggested. One of the benefits of clarifying this method is the light it throws on the suspicion an administrator sometimes entertains that a consultant or adviser is not speaking relevantly and responsibly when in fact by all ordinary objective depict he is. While much of organization theory argues the virtues of common values and agreed organizational objectives, for complex problems in which the root method is inapplicable, agencies will want among their own personnel two types of diversification administrators whose persuasion is organized by reference to policy chains other than those familiar to most members of the organization and, even more commonly, administrators whose passkey or p ersonal values or interests create diversity of view so that, even without a single berth, decision-making can be fragmented and parts of the agency can serve as watchdogs for other parts.IV. Conclusion Lindbloms argument fundamentally attempts to legitimize the decision-making processes that are already frequently in use. He points out a gap between the theory advocated by policy academics and the real-world problems faced by decision-makers. He explains how and why the current work-around is legitimate and exemplary of acceptance. The Branch method, as he calls it, simply needs to be recognized as having merit. By pointing this out and attempting to define the Branch method and its attributes, he is opening the gateway for academics to begin theorizing on this method, as well.